Reference: Government
Hastings
The purpose of this article will be to sketch in outline the forms of government among the Hebrews at successive periods of their history. The indications are in many cases vague, and it is impossible to reconstruct the complete system; at no period was there a definitely conceived, still less a written, constitution in the modern sense. For fuller details reference should be made throughout to the separate articles on the officials, etc., mentioned.
We may at once set aside Legislation, one of the most important departments of government as now understood. In ancient communities, law rested on Divine command and immemorial custom, and could as a rule be altered only by 'fictions.' The idea of avowedly new legislation to meet fresh circumstances was foreign to early modes of thought. At no period do we find a legislative body in the Bible. Grote's dictum that 'The human king on earth is not a lawmaker, but a judge,' applies to all the Biblical forms of government. The main functions of government were judicial, military, and at later periods financial, and to a limited extent administrative.
1. During the nomadic or patriarchal age the unit is the family or clan, and, for certain purposes, the tribe. The head of the house, owing to his position and experience, was the supreme ruler and judge, in fact the only permanent official. He had undisputed authority within his family group (Ge 22; 38:24; De 21:13; Jg 11:34). Heads of families make agreements with one another and settle quarrels among their dependents (Ge 21:22; 31:45); the only sanction to which they can appeal is the Divine justice which 'watches' between them (Ge 31:49,53; 49:7). Their hold over the individual lay in the fact that to disobey was to become an outlaw; and to be an outcast from the tribe was to be without protector or avenger. The heads of families combined form, in a somewhat more advanced stage, the 'elders' (Ex 3:15; 18:21; Nu 22:7); and sometimes, particularly in time of war, there is a single chief for the whole tribe. Moses is an extreme instance of this, and we can see that his position was felt to be unusual (Ex 2:14; 4:1; Nu 16). It was undefined, and rested on his personal influence, backed by the Divine sanction, which, as his followers realized, had marked him out. This enables him to nominate Joshua as his successor.
2. The period of the 'Judges' marks a higher stage; at the same time, as a period of transition it appeared rightly to later generations as a time of lawlessness. The name 'Judges,' though including the notion of champion or deliverer, points to the fact that their chief function was judicial. The position was not hereditary, thus differing from that of king (Jg 9 ff. Gideon and Abimelech), though Samuel is able to delegate his authority to his sons (1Sa 8:1). Their status was gained by personal exploits, implying Divine sanction, which was sometimes expressed in other ways; e.g. gift of prophecy (Deborah, Samuel). Their power rested on the moral authority of the strong man, and, though sometimes extending over several tribes, was probably never national. During this period the nomadic tribe gives way to the local; ties of place are more important than ties of birth. A town holds together its neighbouring villages ('daughters'), as able to give them protection (Nu 21:25,32; Jos 17:11). The elders become the 'elders of the city'; Jg 8:6,14,18 mentions officials (s
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And it chanced, the same season, that Abimelech and Phicol his chief captain spake unto Abraham saying, "God is with thee in all that thou doest.
"And this toot-hill which the LORD seeth," said he, "be witness between me and thee when we are departed one from another:
The God of Abraham, the God of Nahor, and the God of their fathers, be judge betwixt us." And Jacob sware by him that his father Isaac feared.
Cursed be their wrath for it was strong, and their fierceness for it was cruel. I will therefore divide them in Jacob, and scatter them in Israel.
And he answered, "Who hath made thee a ruler or a judge over us? Intendest thou to kill me, as thou killedst the Egyptian?" Then Moses feared and said, "Of a surety the thing is known."
And God spake further unto Moses, "Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, 'the LORD God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob hath sent me unto you': this is my name for ever, and this is my memorial throughout all generations.
Moses answered and said, "See, they will not believe me nor hearken unto my voice: but will say, 'the LORD hath not appeared unto thee.'"
And Moses said unto Joshua, "Choose out men and go fight with Amalek. Tomorrow I will stand on the top of the hill and the rod of God in mine hand."
And Moses said unto his father-in-law, "Because the people came unto me to seek counsel of God.
But hear my voice, and I will give thee counsel, and God shall be with thee. Be thou unto the people to Godward, and bring the causes unto God,
Moreover, seek out, among all the people, men of activity which fear God; and men that are true and hate covetousness: and make them heads over the people, captains over thousands, over hundreds, over fifty, and over ten.
And Moses brought the people out of the tents to meet with God, and they stood under the hill.
Then let his master bring him unto the judges and set him to the door or the doorpost, and bore his ear through with an awl, and let him be his servant forever.
If the thief be not found, then the goodman of the house shall be brought unto the judges and swear, whether he have put his hand unto his neighbor's good.
And Israel took all these cities and dwelt in all the cities of the Amorites: in Heshbon and in all the towns that long thereto.
And Moses sent to search out Jazer, and they took the towns belonging thereto and conquered the Amorites that were there.
And the elders of Moab went with the elders of Midian, and the reward of the soothsaying in their hands. And they came unto Balaam and told him the words of Balak.
Judges and officers thou shalt make thee in all thy cities, which the LORD thy God giveth thee throughout thy tribes: And let them judge the people righteously.
If a matter be too hard for thee in judgment between blood and blood, plea and plea, stroke and stroke in matters of strife within thy cities: Then arise and get thee up unto the place which the LORD thy God hath chosen, and go unto the priests the Levites, and unto the judge that shall be in those days, and ask, and they shall show thee how to judge. read more. And see that thou do according to that which they of that place which the LORD hath chosen show thee, and see that thou observe to do according to all that they inform thee. According to the law which they teach thee and manner of judgment which they tell thee, see that thou do and that thou bow not from that which they show thee, neither to the righthand nor to the left. And that man that will do presumptuously, so that he will not hearken unto the priest that standeth there to minister unto the LORD thy God or unto the judge, shall die: and so thou shalt put away evil from Israel. And all the people shall hear and shall fear, and shall do no more presumptuously. When thou art come unto the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee and enjoyest it and dwellest therein: If thou shalt say, 'I will set a king over me, like unto all the nations that are about me':
Then let the elders of his city send and fetch him thence and deliver him into the hands of the justice of blood, and he shall die.
And let thine eye have no compassion, but life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, and foot for foot.
and put her raiment that she was taken in from her, and let her remain in thine house and beweep her father and her mother a month long and after that go in unto her and marry her and let her be thy wife.
Then let the father of the damsel and the mother bring forth the tokens of the damsel's virginity, unto the elders of the city, even unto the gate.
And Manasseh had in Issachar and in Asher, Bethshean, and her towns: and the inhabiters of Dor, with the towns pertaining to the same: and the inhabiters of Endor with the towns of the same: and the inhabiters of Taanach with her towns and the inhabiters of Megiddo with the towns of the same, even three countries:
And the lords of Succoth said, "Are the hands of Zebah and Zalmunna now in thine hands that we should give bread unto thy company?"
And he wrote him, of the lords and elders of Succoth: seventy seven men.
And then said unto Zebah and Zalmunna, "What manner men were they which ye slew at Tabor?" And they answered, "The likeness of thee and them is all one, even after the fashion of the children of a king."
Then Jephthah came to Mizpeh unto his house. And see, his daughter came out against him, with timbrels and dances, which was his only child: so that beside her he had neither son nor daughter.
and we will be like all other nations. And our king shall judge us, and go out before us and fight our battles."
But the children of Belial said, "How shall he save us?" And despised him and brought him not presents. And he made as though he had not heard it.
Then said the king unto his footmen that stood about him, "Turn and slay the priests of the LORD, both because their hand is with David and because they knew when David fled and showed it not to me." But the servants of the king would not move their hands, to run upon the priests of the LORD.
And Joab the son of Zeruiah was over the host, and Jehoshaphat the son of Ahilud was recorder.
Wherefore on the morrow David wrote a letter to Joab and sent it by Uriah.
And thereto he used to rise up early in the mornings and to stand by the wayside that led to the gate of the city. And all the men of Israel that had complaints and came to the king for judgment, he called unto him, and said, "Of what city art thou?" And when the other answered, "thy servant is of such a tribe of Israel,"
And king David sent to Zadok and Abiathar the priests, saying, "Speak unto the elders of Judah and say, 'Why should ye be the last that should bring again the king to his house, seeing that such tidings is come from all Israel unto the king, even to his house?
And king Solomon raised a tribute throughout all Israel. And the tribute was thirty thousand men,
besides that he had of chapmen and merchants of apothecaries and of all the kings of Arabia and of the lords of the country.
And Solomon's horses came out of Egypt from Kue: the merchants fetched them from Kue at a price. A chariot came out of Egypt for six hundred sicles of silver, and a horse for a hundred and fifty. And even so, by the hands of the said merchants, horses were brought out for all the kings of the Hittites and for the kings of Syria.
And king Rehoboam took counsel with the old men that stood before Solomon his father, while he yet lived, and said, "What counsel give ye to answer this people withal?"
And she wrote a letter in Ahab's name and sealed it with his seal, and sent it unto the elders and chief men of his city that dwelt where Naboth dwelt.
And the elders and nobles of his city, which dwelt in his city, did as Jezebel had sent unto them, and as it was written in the letter which she had sent unto them.
Then said the king to Hazael, "Take a present with thee and go against the man of God and ask the LORD by him whether I shall recover of this my disease or no."
And the seventh year Jehoiada sent and fetched the rulers over hundreds with the captains and them of the guard, and took them into him into the house of the LORD, and made a bond with them, and took an oath of them in the house of the LORD, and showed them the king's son.
And Jehoiada made a covenant both between the LORD and the king, and between the people and the LORD, that they should be the LORD's people: and also between the king and the people.
And all the people of Judah took Uzziah, which was sixteen years old, and made him king for his father Amaziah.
And Hezekiah gave him all the silver that was found in the house of the LORD and also in the treasure of the king's house.
But the people of the land slew all that conspired against king Amon, and made Josiah his son king in his room.
Of which twenty four thousand were set to further the work of the house of the LORD. And six thousand were officers and judges.
Among the Izrahites was Chenaniah, with his sons, for the work without over Israel, officers and judges.
And he set judges in the land, throughout all the strong cities of Judah, city by city, and said to the judges, "Take heed what ye do: for ye be not judges in the law of man, but of the LORD - which is with you in the words of the law. read more. Wherefore, let the fear of the LORD be with you, and take heed and do it. For there is no unrighteousness in the LORD our God nor regarding of persons, nor taking of rewards." Moreover in Jerusalem did Jehoshaphat set of the Levites and of the priests and of the ancient heads of Israel, over the customs of the LORD and causes of strife. And then they returned again to Jerusalem. And he charged them, saying, "Do even so in the fear of the LORD with truth and pure heart. And whatsoever come to you of your brethren that dwell in their cities, between blood and blood, law, commandment, ordinances and customs: see that ye warn them, that they trespass not against the LORD; lest wrath come upon you and on your brethren. Thus do and ye shall not offend. And see here, Amariah the priest which is head over you in all matters of the LORD; and Zebadiah the son of Ishmael, a ruler in the house of Judah, he is over all causes concerning the king, with officers of the Levites before you. Take courage to you and go upon it, and the LORD shall be with the good."
At the same time came to them Tattenai, which was the captain on this side the water, and Shetharbozenai, and their counselors, and said thus unto them, "Who hath commanded you to build this house, and to make up the walls thereof?"
Nevertheless, we asked the Elders and said unto them, 'Who hath commanded you to build this house, and to make up the walls thereof?'
Let them work in the house of God, that the captain of the Jews and their Elders may build the house of God in his place.
And that whosoever came not within three days, according to the device of the rulers and Elders, all his substance should be forfeited, and be put out from the congregation of the captive.
Let us appoint our rulers therefore in all the congregation, that all they which have taken strange wives in our cities, may come at the time appointed - and the elders of every city and their judges with them - till the wrath of our God be turned away from us for this offense."
And the rulers knew not whither I went or what I did: for hitherto had I not told the Jews and the priests, the councilors and the rulers, and the others that laboured in the work.
And from the time forth that it was committed unto me to be a captain in the land of Judah, namely from the twentieth year even unto the two and thirtieth year of king Artaxerxes - that is twelve years - I and my brethren lived not of such sustenance as was given to a captain:
And Pethahiah the son of Meshezabel, of the children of Zerah the son of Judah, next to the king in all matters concerning the people
But they go wrong by the reason of wine, they fall and stagger because of strong drink. Yea even the priests and prophets themselves go amiss, they are drunken with wine, and weak brained through strong drink. They fail in prophesying, and stumble in judgment.
Nevertheless Elnathan, Delaiah, and Gemariah besought the king, that he would not burn the book: notwithstanding the king would not hear them,
It happened that in the sixth year, the fifth day of the sixth Month, I sat in my house, and the lords of the counsel of Judah with me. And the hand of the LORD God fell even there upon me.
There resorted unto me certain of the elders of Israel, and sat down by me.
In the seventh year, the tenth day of the fifth Month, it happened that certain of the elders of Israel came unto me, for to ask counsel at the LORD, and sat them down by me.
If any discord arise, they shall discern it, and give sentence after my judgments. My solemn feasts, my laws and ordinances shall they keep, and hallow my Sabbaths.
When a lion roareth, who will not be afraid? Seeing then that the LORDE God himself speaketh, who will not prophesy?
O hear this word, ye fat cows, that be upon the hill of Samaria; yea, that do poor men wrong, and oppress the needy; yea, that say to your lords, 'Bring hither, let us drink.'
"'Therefore have I given you idle teeth in all your cities, and scarceness of bread in all your places: yet will ye not turn unto me,' sayeth the LORD.
The LORD God showed me such a vision: behold, there stood one that made grasshoppers, even when the corn was shooting forth, after the king had clipped his sheep.
But I say unto you, Whosoever is angry with his brother shall be in danger of judgment: whosoever sayeth unto his brother, 'Raca,' shall be in danger of a council: but whosoever sayeth, 'Thou fool,' shall be in danger of hell fire.
And God hath also ordained in the congregation, first the apostles, secondarily prophets, thirdly teachers, then them that do miracles; after that, the gifts of healing, helpers, governors, diversity of tongues.